EARLY
BEADS:
The
first beads to be discovered were dated to about 38,000 B.C.E., which is about
the time that the Homo sapiens were
replacing the Neanderthals. They were made from animal teeth and bones and were
worn as pendants. Early humans also used ivory and shells to make beads, and used
naturally occurring volcanic glass or obsidian to make tools, weapons and
jewelry. Early beads were worn as displays of hunting prowess, for spiritual
expression and protection, and as a means of personal identity. Beads also
began to be found as grave offerings.
MAN-MADE
BEADS: EGYPTIAN, PHONECIAN & ISLAMIC BEADS:
Man-made
glass and glass beads began in Mesopotamia around 3,000 B.C.E. and then spread
to Egypt. The Egyptian glass beads were as a treasured as precious stones and
were primarily used symbolically. As the Egyptian civilization was collapsing
and the military conquests of the Mediterranean area were growing, glass
objects began to be produced for trade and commerce instead of just for the use
of the elite. The Phoenicians were known for the glass making skills learned
from other cultures as well as those they developed themselves. After the founding
of Islam and with the development of the Muslim cultures, Islamic glass working
flourished from until to 1400 C.E. Though they utilized the techniques found in
Egypt and the Roman Empire, the Islamic artisans also integrated new styles and
techniques into their bead making. The international trade of Islamic merchants
enabled connections between Islamic artisans and those in other areas such as
Scandinavia, India and China.
RISE
AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE:
As
the Roman rule began, glassmaking spread to areas such as Spain, France and
Rhineland. As the Romans traveled trade followed. As different cultures became
more advanced and connected, the level of craft skills and the spread of skills
between cultures grew. As the Roman Empire fell, glass working became more
regional. During the Migration Period in Europe (i.e. from the 4th
-8th centuries) cultures such as the Franks, Merovingians, and Anglo-Saxons
were developing their own styles. Towards the end of the Migration Period,
around 800 to 1000 C.E., there was glass bead making in Viking towns such as
Ribe and Birka. The Vikings both brought
back beads from their travels to areas such as Northern and Eastern Europe. As
the Vikings often settled in areas where they traded, beads were found in those
locations too.
RISE
OF CHRISTIANITY:
The
development of the Christian era meant that people were no longer burying with
their goods and jewelry was inhibited by the Church as it was considered to be
a Pagan practice. Bead making diminished until the 15th century when
it reappeared and flourished in Venice. From the Renaissance to the 20th
Century, the European glass bead industry grew as did the development of
manufacturing techniques, the volume of bead production and the variety of
beads produced. Though there was bead making in other areas, the glass making
in Venice was unmatched.
COMPONENTS
OF GLASS:
Ancient
glass had the same components as the types of glass used by bead makers today:
silica, soda (a flux to lower the melting point of the silica) and lime (calcium
as a stabilizer to harden the glass and to keep the ingredients in their
cohesive form). Silica comes from sand or flint (i.e. ground siliceous rocks). The
more silica, the softer the glass. Soda (flux) was made from the ash of burned
aquatic plants or potash which is from the ash of woodland plants. It is now
produced chemically and therefore is more easily accessible. The addition of
extra ingredients, either accidental or purposeful, change the quality of the
glass. The addition of metals created different colors (e.g., cobalt- blues,
iron- green).
HEAT
SOURCES:
Heat
is needed to form glass from its raw ingredients. It is then used to re-heat,
shape and manipulate pre-shaped glass rods. In the ancient world the pre-shaped
forms of glass, such as rods or a lump of glass were sold or traded to glass workers’
workshops all over. Period heat sources
were stone or clay structures fired with wood or charcoal with the bellows to
add extra oxygen to increase the temperature of the flame. The Venetians used
oil lamps which is where the term lamp working came from. Today modern heat
sources of torches with fuels are used.
There
were different methods of working the glass in period. Glass was melted in a crucible and a metal
rod was placed in the molten glass to pick it up and then wind it onto the
mandrel (i.e., hot trailing). A rod of glass that was heated and then wound
onto the mandrel was also used. This method of winding heated glass onto the
mandrel is what we use today, but with more widely available, diverse, and
sophisticated glass options.
CITATIONS:
Cummings,
Keith, A History of Glassforming, University of Pennsylvania Press, Chapters
1-4
Dubin,
Lois Sherr, The History of Beads: from 30,000 B.C. to the Present, Harry N.
Abrams, Inc., New York.
Tettinger,
Corina, Passing the Flame (A Beadmakers Guide to Detail and Design), BonzoBucks
& Books Publishing, 2002
